An excellent opportunity to help me bridge theory and practice which otherwise remains nebulous

Part one: Introduction 1. Rationale. Language teaching is a complex process involving many interrelated factors. Many studies have been done to find out suitable and effective methods of teaching language. However, many researchers have showned that teaching methods don’t play a decisive role in language classroom. Interest in EFL has shifted away from the consideration of teaching methods in isolation towards a focus on classroom interaction as the most vital element in second language learning process. Classroom interaction is important because interaction is the essential criteria of classroom pedagogy. Interaction is the process whereby lessons are “accomplished”. In classroom interaction analysis, teacher talk was pointed to be particular important to language teaching. According to pedagogical theory, the language that teachers use in classrooms determines to a large degree whether a class will succeed or not. Teacher talk is estimated to make up around 70% of classroom language. Teachers pass on knowledge and skills, organize teaching activities and help pupils practice through teacher talk. Teacher talk involves many aspects, in which teacher questions have drawn much attention. It is now generally agreed that questioning is an important methods of teaching. Aschner (1961), for example, calls the teacher “a professional question maker” and suggests that question asking is “one of the basic ways by which the teacher stimulates student thinking and learning” (quoted in Gall 1970: 707). Given the importance to education, it is not surprising that questions “have been the focus of research attention in both content classrooms and language classrooms for many years” (Nunan, 1990:187). In content classroom, cognitive levels of questions have been studies in relation to student achievement (Winne, 1979; Redfield & Rousseau, 1981). In the language classroom, questions have tended to be examined as a means of eliciting more or less linguistic output and involving students in interaction. While these studies have shed much light on the relationships between teacher questions and student performance, they have not exhausted the subject. In Vietnam, most people learn English in classrooms. Classroom language is the chief source of foreign language learning. It functions not only as the main source of language learning but also a tool by which a foreign language is taught. However, as far as I know, there are not many researches carried out in this area in Vietnamese EFL classrooms. Since a better understanding of the use of teacher questions and classroom interaction in EFL classrooms can undoubtedly help teachers and students improve their teaching and learning. As an EFL teacher, this study is an excellent opportunity to help me bridge theory and practice which otherwise remains nebulous. Observing and describing classroom events make it possible for me to critically examine improvement needed in my teaching. Ultimately, I can pursue more suitable ways of teaching for the enhancement of student learning. 2. Aims of the study. The study aims at: *Investigating the relationships among these four variables in the ESL classroom in Ly Thai To school: (1) question types, (2) questioning strategies, (3) student attitudes, and (4) patterns of interaction *Giving suggestions and recommendations to teachers at Ly Thai To school. 3. Research questions. Question 1. What is the frequency of display questions and referential questions used by different teachers in different classes? Question 2. What questioning strategies do teachers use? Question 3. What are the patterns of classroom interaction? 4. Scope of the study. To limit the scope of the study, I will investigate interactions in four class in English periods by focusing on types of teacher questions and students’ attitudes toward these questions. The study considers only conversational interactions as the goal is to assess the direct effects of interactions on oral competence improvement. 5. Methodology. The method applied in this study are both quantitative and qualitative The data which this study draws on come from audiotape, note taking and observation of four English language lessons by four teachers who are teaching at Ly Thai To school. Subjects of my study are four classes in Ly Thai To School in Bac Ninh Province. Number of pupils level Time of learning English Class 1 45 10th At least 4 years Class 2 45 10th At least 4 years Class 3 50 10th At least 4 years Class 4 50 10th At least 4 years Table 1: Description of classes observed. English is a compulsory subject and they have three English periods per week. Ly Thai To is not a gifted school, however the quality of teaching and learning is quite high in comparison with other schools in this area. Part two: Development Chapter 1: Literature review 1. 1 What is classroom interaction? Brown (1994) defines interaction as “the collaborative exchange of the thoughts, feelings, or ideas between two or more people resulting in a reciprocal effect on each other” (p:159). In fact, at the heart of CLT, interaction is considered an important factor for CC achievement. Having the same idea, Rivers, who sees interaction as the key to teaching language for communication, wrote: “Part of the teacher art is to create, or stimulate student creation of, the types of situation in which interaction naturally blossoms and in which students can use for actual communication what they have been learning in a more formal fashion. In this way, they are already engaging in the central activity for which languages is used in human relations.” (1987:4). 1.2 The role of classroom interaction in L2 acquisition Language classroom can be seen as sociolinguistics environments (Cazden, 1988) and discourse communities (Hall and Verplaetse, 2000) in which interaction is believed to contribute to learners’ language development. The authors state that the role of interaction is very important. In addition, language learning is especially important. It is in their interaction with each other that teachers and students work together to create the Intellecture and practical activities that shape both the form and the content of the target language as well as the processes and outcomes of individual development (Hall and Verplaetse, p.10) According to Allwright’s (1984, p.158) claims on the importance of classroom interaction in language learning in FL lesson, it is “inherent in the very notion of classroom pedagogy itself”. The language environment needs to turn a language classroom into an acquisition-rich setting. But how might a teacher turn a classroom into an acquisition-rich setting? One of the ways teachers can do to make the classroom a rich input environment is establishing a non-threatening environment in the classroom, which encourages meaningful learning and creative use of English. Teacher can achieve this by establishing informal and warm-hearted interaction between teacher and learners, as well as among learners themselves. This friendly interaction has been approved to be the most essential factor in successful language learning in numerous studies on classroom interaction. Wilga Rivers (1987) emphasized the importance of interaction as follows. “Through interaction, students can increase their language store as they listen to or read authentic linguistic material, or even the output of their fellow students in discussions, skits, joint problem-solving tasks, or dialogue-all they have learned or casually absorbed – in real life exchanges …Even at an elementary stage, they learn in this way to exploit the elasticity of language.” Thus in order to improve students learning outcomes, it is necessary to engage students in meaningful interactions with teachers and other students. When learners are given opportunities to take part in conversational interaction, they have to “negotiate for meaning”. This term refers to those modifications, which speakers make during the interaction in order to be understood or to understand each other. This process of negotiation is thought to lead to L2 development specifically communicative abilities. 1.3 Teacher talk For foreign language learners, classroom is the main place where they are frequently exposed to the target language. The kind of language used by the teacher for instruction in the classroom is known as teacher talk (TT). For this term, Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics defines it as “that variety of language sometimes used by teachers when they are in the process of teaching. In trying to communicate with learners, teachers often simplify their speech, giving it many of the characteristics of foreigner talk and other simplified styles of speech addressed to language learners” (Richards, 1992:471) Having studies the SLA for many years, Rod Ellis (1985) has formulated his own view about teacher talk: “ Teacher talk is the special language that teacher uses when addressing L2 learners in the classroom. There is systematic simplification of the formal properties of the teacher’s language … studies of teacher talk can be divided into those that investigate in the type of language they use in subject lessons.” He also commented “ the language that teachers address to L2 learner is treated as a register, with its own specific formal and linguistic properties” (Ellis, 1985: 145) From the definitions above, we can see that teacher talk in English classroom has it own special style because of restriction of physical setting, special participants as well as the goal of teaching. Moreover, teacher talk is a special communicative activity. Its goal is to communicate with students and develops students’ foreign language proficiency. Teacher talk is used in class when teachers are conducting instructions, cultivating their intellectual ability and managing classroom activities (Feng Qican, 1999:23). Teachers adopt the target language to promote their communication with learners. In this way, learners practice the language by responding to what their teacher says. Besides, teachers use the language to encourage the communication between learners and themselves. Therefore we can say teacher talk is a kind of communication – based or interaction – based talk. Teacher talk has attracted attention because of its potential effect on learns’ comprehension, which has been hypothesized to be important for L2 acquisition. There is no learning without teaching. So as a tool in implementing teaching plans and achieving teaching goals, teacher talk plays a vital role in language learning. Nunan (1991) points out that: “Teacher talk is of crucial importance, not only for the organization and management of the classroom because it is through language that teachers succeed or fail in implementing their teaching plans. In terms of acquisition, teacher talk is important because it is probably the major source of comprehensible target language input the learner is likely to receive.”. The amount and type of teacher talk is even regarded as a decisive factor of success or failure in classroom teaching. 1.4 Teachers’ questions Questioning is one of the most common techniques used by teachers (Jack C.Richard & Charles Lockhart, 2000) and serves as the principal way in which teachers control the classroom interaction. The tendency for teachers to ask many questions has been observed in many investigations (Chaudron, 1988). In some classroom over half of class time is taken up by question-and-answer exchanges. Teachers’ questions have attracted considerable attention from researchers of language classroom. 1.4.1. Definition of question The Longman Dictionary of English language provides the following definition for a question: a command or interrogative expression used to elicit information or a response, or to test knowledge. Lynch (1991), however, criticizes the last aspect of it, i.e. to test knowledge. In non–education settings, people seldom ask questions to which they already have an answer. Although, there are a number of exceptions such as jokes (e.g. what’s the difference between – and - ?), quizzes (e.g. Which country will host the next Olympics?) and courtroom discourse (e.g. And what did the defendant say to you then?). Lynch characterizes a question as an utterance with a particular illocutionary forces; and Quirk et al. (1970 and 1985) define a question as a semantic class used to seek information on a specific subject (Lynch, 1991) In classroom settings, teacher questions are defined as instructional cues or stimuli that convey to students the content elements to be learned and directions for what they are to do and how they are to do it. What are the purposes of teachers' classroom questions? A variety of purposes emerge from analysis of the literature, including: To develop interest and motivate students to become actively involved in lessons To evaluate students' preparation and check on homework or seatwork completion To develop critical thinking skills and inquiring attitudes To review and summarize previous lessons To nurture insights by exposing new relationships To assess achievement of instructional goals and objectives To stimulate students to pursue knowledge on their own 1.4.2. Function of teachers’ questions From the development of the Socratic method, to the 1860 edition of Barnard’s American Journal of Instruction that states, “to question well is to teach well”, educators have long known that questioning is a useful way to aid the transfer of knowledge from instructor to pupil (Ross, 1860). Multiple –based studies have focused on the use of questioning as a successful and universal pedagogical approach. Questioning plays a critical role in the way instructors structure the class environment, organize the content of the course and has deep implications in the way that students assimilate the information that is presented and discussed in class. Question- answering is predominant and pervasive in classrooms of most subjects, since it is the easiest way to establish oral interaction between teacher and student. By asking students questions, teachers are able to elicit utterances from students and guarantee student talking time, because a question “compels, requires, may even demand, a response”(Goody 1978:23). This verbal exchange is expected to play an important role in classroom language acquisition of students in terms of input, interaction, and output. Questions are also important, in that they represent a major source of a student's linguistic input. White and Lightbown (1984) recorded a teacher asking 427 questions in a single 50-minute class. Presumably this is not typical of questioning patterns in all classrooms, but, undoubtedly, questions represent a key aspect of teacher talk. With input being widely accepted as an essential prerequisite for language learning, it is no exaggeration to conclude that the nature of teacher's questions, per se, has a direct impact on second language acquisition. Research indicates that in most classrooms someone is talking most of the time. Generally it is the teacher who talks and the students who listen. One way to switch from teacher –centered instruction to student- centered instruction is through the use of questions. Thus skill in questioning becomes a vital component of effective teaching (Brown &Wragg, 1993; Wilen, 1991) Questioning is basic to good communications. However, proper questioning is a sophisticated art, one at which few people are proficient despite having asked thousands of questions in their lifetimes. Questions lie at the heart of good, interactive teaching. Questions must be at the appropriate level, be of appropriate type, and above all, be worded properly. We will now look at the different level at which questions can be asked. 1.4.3. Levels of questions. Questions may be categorized as narrow or broad. Narrow questions usually require only factual recall or specific, correct answer. Broad questions, however, can seldom be answered with a single word and often do not have one correct answer. Broad questions usually require that students go beyond simple memory and use the thinking process to formulate answer. Although both kinds of questions are useful in the learning process, teachers traditionally rely too heavily on narrow questions. Effective teachers adapt the level of questions to their teaching objectives (Dillion,1983, 1990). If learning specific information is the objective, then narrow questions are appropriate. If thinking processes are the objective, then broader questions are needed. Since thinking can take place at several levels of sophistication, it is important that teachers be able to classify and ask questions at these levels There are many classification systems for describing the different levels of questions. Most of them are useful only to the extend that they provide a framework for formulating questions at the desired level within a classroom environment. The first system I would like to focus here is the system of classifying questions as convergent or divergent. Convergent questions are those that allow for only one right response, whereas divergent questions allow for many right responses. Questions about create facts are convergent, while questions dealing with opinions, hypothesis, and evaluations are divergent. Questions about concrete facts (who, what, when, and where questions) that have been learned and committed to memory are convergent. For example: Who is the President of the United States? What is 5 +3? Where is the White House located? Convergent questions may also require students to recall and integrate or analyze information to provide one expected correct answer. Most alternative-response questions, such as those that can be answered yes or no or true or false, are also classified as convergent, since students’ response is limited. Examples are: Is 3+2 = 5? Is this a picture of a farm animal or a house pet? Is this logic statement true or false? Conversely, questions calling for opinions, hypotheses, or evaluations are divergent, since there are many possible correct responses. Examples include: What would be a good name for this story? Can you give me an example of the use of this word in a sentence? Why is it important to protect our environment? Whom do you consider the greatest scientist that ever lived? Divergent questions should be used frequently because they encourage broader responses and are, therefore, more likely to involve students in the learning process. They require that students think. However, convergent questions are equally important in that they deal with the background information needed to answer divergent questions. In the classroom it is generally desirable to start with convergent questions and move toward divergent questions. In summary, convergent questions limit student responses to only one correct answer, whereas divergent questions allow for many possible correct responses. Another system of classifying questions is based on Mental Operation Systems. The table below offers a review of the Mental Operation System for classifying questions. Levels of Classroom Questions. Category Factual Empirical Productive Evaluative Type of thinking Student simply recalls information. Student integrates and analyzes given or recalled information. Student thinks creatively and imaginatively and produces something unique Student makes judgment or expresses values. Examples Define … Who was …? What did the text say …? Compare … Explain in your own words … Calculate the … What will life be like …? What’s a good name for …? How could we …? Which painting is best? Why do you favor this …? Who is the best …? Table 2. Mental Operation System for Classifying Question